Breastfeeding for the First Time Mother Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Breastfeeding for the First Time Mother - Essay Example hat are Health care professionals (fellow nurses etc.), English speaking, have delivered their first baby, and are postpartum in an inpatient hospital unit. They will be mothers that have requested a course and are coming of their own free will. Availability of resources has been a major issue for educators, as lack of resources often causes ineffective outcomes. However, in order to deliver classes efficiently, there will be need of various resources. In specific, during the classes, I will be focusing significantly in utilizing the tools of information technology that will enable me in achieving the objectives for this course in an efficient and interactive manner. Additionally, it will be a lot easier to inform the audience about different aspects of breastfeeding, and especially first-time breastfeeding through equipments such as multimedia projector that will be the fundamental support in delivering content of the course adequately and significantly. It will allow me to show pictures and power point presentations from a computer and actively engage the audience with the information. Besides a multimedia projector, a dry erase board is another resourceful tool that will allow on the spot discussions and noting down of r elevant points during the class. Using secondary research methodology to acquire quality resources from the library and from the internet will be very beneficial for me in delivering the class effectively, as well as for the audience to understand the matter appropriately. Specifically, the internet will allow me to acquire pictures and videos that will facilitate me in delivering the information to mothers that will not be in my reach through the medium of language. Sources from the internet that I plan to utilize are the International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners (IBLCE, 2010) resource page, as well as the La Leche League (LLLI, 2010) resource page on their respective websites. From these websites, one gold standard reference -

Paradoxes of Whistle-blowing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Paradoxes of Whistle-blowing - Essay Example Third, the act is required, whether or not it is moral to do so or not. The act needs to be performed because of a rational non-moral reason. In this context, whistle-blowing is morally problematic because there is confusion on whether whistle-blowing should be something morally permissible, morally required or at the other extreme morally wrong. Whistle-blowing involves revealing information that ordinarily, would not be revealed, because one is entrusted with that information. By this definition, the police officer, the criminal informant or the clerk who happens upon evidence of wrongdoing in another department, are not whistle-blowers because they have not been entrusted with the information, even if they were while working under false pretences. According to the standard theory, whistle-blowing is permissible when an organization's product or policy is harmful to the public; when the prospective whistle-blower has identified the harm, reported such to a superior, and the superior does nothing about it; the prospective whistle-blower has done everything possible within the organization to call attention to the identified harm. Additionally, according to the standard theory, whistle-blowing is required when the prospective whistle-blower has evidence that will convince an impartial observer that the threat to public safety is correct; and when the prospective whistle-blower is convinced that revealing the threat will be able to prevent harm at reasonable cost. Generally speaking, there appears to be nothing wrong with the standard theory, except S1 which places the burden of identification of the gravity of the threat is the judgment of the whistle-blower, as well as S5, which again puts the burden of judgment regarding reasonable cost on the shoulders of the whistle-blower.. 3. Explain the three paradoxes that Davis claims the standard theory gives rise to. If you were a defender of the standard theory, how might you respond to Davis' arguments According to Davis, the first paradox that has arisen from the standard theory is the paradox of burden. The standard theory presupposes that whistle-blowers are minimally decent individuals who blow the whistle after complying with five justifications. Actually, whistle-blowers are exemplary individuals who risk financial security and personal relations for the good of the public. The second paradox is the paradox of missing harm. According to the standard theory, the harm that justifies whistle-blowing needs to be serious and considerable in magnitude. Injustice, deception and waste are not justifications for whistle-blowing under the standard theory. The third paradox is the paradox of failure. The standard theory requires that one of the justifications for whistle-blowing is the prevention of harm. Paradoxically, if harm cannot be prevented by whistle-blowing, then it is not justified. In defense of the standard theory, the paradox of burden is the natural result for the whistle-blower. The standard theory works on the premise that organizations, unless those which are criminal, would not deliberately seek to produce harmful products for the general public. So only in extreme cases would there be a need for whistle-blowers. Relaxing the rules would only encourage unfounded complaints and back-stabbing

The main concepts of the behaviorist perspective theory

The main concepts of the behaviorist perspective theory As a reaction to the introspective analysis method in psychology and the focus on the study of mental processes, conscious or unconscious that dominated the beginning of the last century and was considered the object of psychology at that time  [1]  , a new approach was developed under the name of behaviorism. This new psychotherapeutic approach was to dominate psychology for about 50 years. Precursors of this approach are the American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike  [2]  and the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov  [3]  , but the one who is considered the father of behaviorism and established its theoretical and practical fundaments is John Watson  [4]  . Behavior becomes the focus of psychological investigation because it is the only one that can be scientifically studied and quantified, predicted and controlled. The behaviorist assumptions are that: psychology should be seen as a science and therefore it should deal with observable behaviors that generate empirical data; the environment plays a decisive role in determining behavior as opposed to the psychic inner processes; all behavior is learnt from environment and this learning process is similar to animals. In contrast with the vague concepts used by introspectionism, behaviorism places a high emphasis on the use of operational definitions that is defining various concepts in terms of observable events that may be used to describe human experience in terms of stimuli and responses. A specific characteristic of behaviorism is parsimony seeking the simplest possible explanation for any event  [5]  . Key concepts of behaviorism comprise the stimulus response (S-R) equation, the classical and operant conditioning, and the reinforcement and punishment notions. The method used to analyze behavior is the lab experiment which gave the possibility to manipulate the independent variable in order to study the dependent variable. Stimulus is a measurable change in the environment any object, fact, event or situation that may have an impact on behavior, while response is a measurable change in behavior any reaction to a stimulus either environmental or mental. The behaviorist theory excludes thoughts, feelings and other mental occurrences, and genetic factors as well, that is everything that cannot be study objectively, in observable terms. Watson took further Pavlovs idea of conditioning  [6]  and applied it to humans. According to him humans are born tabula rasa and the behavior is simply learnt from the environment through a process of conditioning. In a famous and controversial experiment because of its ethical implications, Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned Little Albert an 18-months old toddler to develop a fear response to rats, by associating the rat NS with a strong noise UCS. They conducted their research following the classical conditioning scheme: Noise (UCS) Anxiety (UCR); Noise (UCS) + Rat (NS) Anxiety (UCR); Rat (CS) Anxiety (CR)  [7]  . Close related to the process of classical conditioning is the generalization that occurs. Thus, stimuli similar to the original CS would tend to elicit the same CR. In the case of Little Albert it was reported that the boy was showing strong signs of anxiety to all fluffy objects, which were similar to the white rat used in experiment. Stimulus generalization results in responding to a whole class of related stimuli, after initial learning with a single stimulus and can enable organisms to adapt better to their environment though it may not always be adaptive  [8]  . Behaviorists draw the conclusion that generalization is the first response of an organism when encountering new situations. Sometimes this generalization may take the form of stereotyping that occurs when generalizing based on group membership. To fight this phenomenon, behaviorists undertook and exemplified through research the concept of stimulus discrimination  [9]  , according to which an organism may be tr ained to discriminate between two or more stimuli that progressively increase in alikeness. As Glassman and Haddad point out stimulus discrimination always requires training in the absence of such training, organisms tend to generalize (emphasis theirs)  [10]  . Opposed to the concept of conditioning is the concept of extinction which suggests that what can be learned can also be unlearned, and that a conditional response is not necessarily permanent  [11]  . However, as some research indicate  [12]  , extinction is likely to appear in humans in some basic behaviors involving muscle responses like withdrawing from a hot surface, but not in complex behaviors which involve fear responses or other responses of the automatic nervous system and which are very hard to extinguish. Using Pavlovs extinction procedure, Watson and Rayner tried to eliminate the conditioned fear response associated with rats in Little Alberts case by presenting the rat for a period of three weeks w ithout associating it with the gongs noise. Contrary to their expectation the fear did not extinguish. Stimulus generalization and discrimination concepts as well as the extinction principle have a great importance for our discussion because they will be used in the process of developing behavioral psychotherapeutic techniques. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning. He argues that all behavior is modeled by complex reinforcement patterns from the environment. In his view, humans and animals actively engage with their environment, as opposed to the Watsonian emphasis on classical conditioning where they are more passive waiting for the environment to produce stimuli to which they may respond to. Skinners main idea is that human behavior is determined by the consequences of its past behavior. If from a Watsonian perspective the behavior is triggered by external stimuli, starting with Skinner the behavior may be elicited by internal stimuli as well, as a result of past internalized experiences. Thus operant conditioning is a type of learning where future behavior is determined by the consequences of past behavior. According to Skinner the past behavior may influence feature behavior depending on three types of consequences: if it had no consequence, the probability of that behavior to occur in the future is neuter; if the consequence is found pleasant, then the behavior is likely to be repeated in the future this was called positive reinforcement; if the consequence is negative, then it acts as a punishment and makes that specific behavior unlikely to appear in the future. By extrapolation, learning occurs through manipulation of positive reinforcements and punishments. Newer behaviorist approaches acknowledge that although the two types of conditioning reflex and operant were developed independent of each other by different researchers, they are interconnected and in real life situations both processes can occur simultaneously  [13]  . Practice therapeutic process and methods The behavior therapeutic approach emerged from these behavioral principles of classical and operant conditioning. All behavior is learnt and therefore abnormal behavior is seen as the result of faulty learning. In order to cure the individual needs to learn the correct behavior. The behavioral therapy applying the principle of here and now focuses on the present behavior which the patient finds problematic as opposed to the psychodynamic therapy that focuses on identifying and uncovering unconscious conflicts from childhood. The therapist sees the patient as standing at the intersection between genetic inheritance and learning that occurred through interaction between individual and environmental stimuli. These result in maladaptive thoughts, feelings, attitudes and verbal behavior. Conventionally, the psychotherapeutic process starts by behavior analysis  [14]  . The focus is on indentifying the current stimulus response relationship. Based on the disruptive behaviors identified the therapist designs a program (the psychotherapeutic process) meant to help the patient unlearn the faulty responses and if appropriate learn more adaptive behaviors. The patient is explained how the psychotherapy works, how the conditioned responses were learnt somewhere in the past and how the very same behavioral responses can be modified using the techniques of behavioral therapy. According to Bennet, behavior therapy differs from psychoanalytic therapies in the following regards: it is directive, the therapist actively involves in the therapeutic process, using methods based on learning principles; the goal of therapy is different in that it intends to change behavior not to reconstruct personality; the therapy is shorter than other forms; the interventions are symptom specific, closer to the medical model of intervention rather than the psychoanalytic catharsis or insight  [15]  . Behavioral techniques emerged from the classical conditioning principle involve systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy, implosion therapy and flooding. Operant conditioning techniques are related to what is commonly known in therapy as behavior modification, behavior shaping and token economy. Systematic desensitization is the treatment of choice for phobias and various anxiety inducing behaviors. It aims at replacing the patients anxiety response with a relaxation one, by increasingly exposing the patient to a hierarchy of stimuli from the less anxiety evoking to the anxiety evoking stimulus itself. During the process, the patient goes to the next stage of the stimulus hierarchy only after succeeding to be fully relaxed in the present of the previous stimulus. This method requires the training of the patient in relaxation techniques  [16]  and involves the use of imagination, since when is impossible to be confronted with the actual situation (like is the case in social p hobias) the patient has to imagine being in those situations, following that life itself will offer opportunities to see if the therapy is successful or not. So, the exposure can be done in vitro or in vivo, depending on the phobic stimulus. However, studies have emphasized that the important factor in curing is the exposure to the feared object or situation by breaking the avoidance cycle created and reinforced in any phobia. Aversion therapy is used to induce an aversive response to stimuli which are associated with existing undesirable behaviors. It has been used in trying to treat alcoholic addiction, by associating a nausea producing drug or a small electric shock with the undesired behavior of drinking. As a result of this stimuli association, the patient is provoked to vomit. This supposedly might determine the patient avoid drinking in the future. However, this method raises serious ethical and effectiveness problems, the rates of relapse being reportedly very high. Implosion therapy and flooding involve that the patient has to face the worst possible fear producing situation, in imagination only in the former and in the physical context in the latter. In contrast with systematic desensitization which presupposes a gradual exposure to the stimuli, these techniques are more radical and less time consuming. If successful, the patient might be cured of a phobia in one hour. The advantage of this method is that the patient learns that there are no objective bases for his/her fear by accepting to openly confront it. Ethical problems are associated as well in regard to suffering from therapy. Derived from operant conditioning, the behavior modification method is largely used in educational and clinical psychology contexts. It reinforces desired behaviors and ignores or punishes undesired ones. This techniques raises problems in choosing reinforcers since people can potentially respond to a wide range of such stimuli. Similar to behavior modification is the behavior shaping technique successfully used in working with autistic children in order to maintain a desired behavior. Another operant application has been used in institutions (for examples schools and hospitals) within the programs called token economies, where conditioned reinforcers are offered to strengthen specific behaviors. Tokens are offered in exchange of a desired behavior and can later be transformed in something that the individual wants. Token behave as a secondary reinforcement for the primary reinforcements which are in fact desired. It may be also used to extinguish undesired behaviors by taking away t he earned tokens to punish undesired behavior. Taken economies are uncommon and inefficient in treating mental disorders, although they might contribute to alleviating some disruptive behaviors associated with mental disorders, such as aggressiveness, inadequate social interaction and use of bad language  [17]  . Evaluation of the approach strengths and limits One of the major strengths of this approach is questionably considered its scientific background. Developed from lab experiments on animals (Pavlov-dogs, Thorndike cats, Watson rats, Skinner pigeons and rats) it focuses exclusively on behavior which can be observed and objectively measured. The behaviorist human being is concrete, realistic, determined in its actions by the environment and the society that he/she lives in. This theoretical approach proved to be productive in creating psychotherapeutic methods, mainly successful in the area of phobias and addictions. Compared to other approaches behaviorism is supported by many experiments. However, there are discrepancies between the empirical and the theoretical developments in behaviorism, which is considered a limitation of the approach. Initial empirical studies were made on animals (as mentioned above) while the theoretical studies are done by generalizing observations made on animals upon humans. This fact cumulated with the declared behaviorists rejection of the importance of mental processes offers a very fragmented and simplistic view of human being. Watson believed that observing and describing behavior is enough to predict and control it. Thus, he eliminated explanation from psychology. Psychic life was acknowledged but its understanding was not considered necessary because it will finally manifest itself at behavioral level. At this point we need to reconsider what meaning we give to the term scientific, in regard to our double perspective taken by the present work. If scientific means that positive methods in studying human being (similar to the study of rocks, animals, meteorological phenomena etc.) are favored, then we might as well consider this psychological approach a step forward on the terrain of positive science. But if scientific means to conceptualize the human being in all its wholeness in order to understand its starting point, its inner resorts and teleological direction, then behaviorism might be seen as an unacceptable lessening of the complexity and mystery of human being. The intense use of lab experiments present the disadvantage of a low ecological validity  [18]  . In time it became obvious that understanding of behavior cannot come from the laboratory. On the other hand behaviorism was criticized as being reductionist by eliminating the meditational processes and too deterministic by the fact that human being is presented as not possessing free will. Another weakness identified by ethnological studies show that the principles of conditioning are not as universal as was once asserted  [19]  . However, maybe the most informed criticism is provided from within, by a behavior therapist like Lazarus connected with Joseph Wolpe, who states in regard to behavior therapy that: the methods of behavior therapy are extremely effective when applied to carefully selected cases by informed practitioners. But when procedures overstep the boundaries of their legitimate terrain, ridicule and disparagement are most likely to ensue. Far from being a panacea, the methods are then held to have no merit whatsoever, and the proverbial baby gets thrown out with the bath waterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The danger lies in a premature elevation of learning principles into unwarranted scientific truths  [20]  . Comparison with psychodynamic perspective Within the behaviorist approach various theorists hold positions that may vary in some degrees but fundamentally assert the same thing: behavior is the new found object of psychology; this allows psychology to behave and to be considered a natural science; a belief that its legitimate to study the animal behavior and compare it with human behavior; the emphasis on environment as causation of behavior and consequently dismiss mental processes. The psychodynamic and behaviorist perspectives on human being are opposed. They started from very different points in defining what human being is. Furthermore, the behaviorism appeared as a reaction to psychoanalysis and other currents in psychology that used the method of introspection to define and explain the inner, immaterial and unseen mental processes. Their approach was considered by behaviorists as mysticism. The focus in psychodynamic theories and practice is on inner processes that are seen as motivating and influencing behavior, while the focus in behaviorist theories and practice is on the outer world, i.e. environment that is seen as determining behavior. The change in psychoanalysis comes by uncovering unconscious conflicts that are the underlying causes of behavior, while the change in behaviorism comes by manipulating the environment in order to remove undesirable behavior. These opposing perspectives do not completely eliminate dialogue since the unification point i s the human being itself. For example, if a Freudian theorist suggests that adult behavior can best be understood by looking at childhood experiences, Skinner agrees but suggests that the connections are based on the reinforcement history of the person, not some vague concept of conflicts between id and ego  [21]  . In the Freudian understanding of human nature, the person is born with instincts, hence the development of the drive and unconscious psychology, as opposed to the Watsonian perspective where humans are born tabula rasa. The behaviorist theorist Skinner describes the inner life as a black box. He acknowledges its existence but he sees it in behaviorist terms. For him the private inner life is also behavior  [22]  . However, in the view of the major differences presented above we are enabled to draw the conclusion that psychoanalysis and behaviorism have as a starting point different assumptions concerning human nature and therefore, develop at the conceptual- the oretical and practical-therapeutic level towards two distinct finalities. This point is very well made clear by Watson in one of his famous quotes: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant -chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for thousands of years  [23]  . Contributions to new developments Despite all its limitations, the behaviorist approach has some positive points as well: provided psychology with new and quantifiable concepts, opened the gate to new theories and explanations in psychology, crated more realistic methods. Somehow ironically, one of the major contributions made by behaviorism concerns the possibilities of research opened towards the investigation of cognitive processes that they initially rejected, which will fundament the new cognitive approach in psychology. For example, Edward Tolman, regarded as one of the founders of the cognitive approach, considered himself a behaviorist though not a radical behaviorist like Skinner. In addition, the study of many cognitive issues, such as observational learning imitation) and the use of hypotheses in problem solving, began with similar behaviorist studies of animals. Where the introspectionists failed in their attempts to make sense out of mental processes the behaviorists have pointed the way to new possibil ities for a scientific psychology of the mind  [24]  . Neobehaviorism introduces the meditational processes (motive, emotion) between stimuli and response.

Morals and Ethics in the Movie Wall Street Essay -- Film Movie Wall St

Morals and Ethics in the Movie Wall Street The movie 'Wall Street' is a representation of poor morals and dissapointing business ethics in the popular world of business. This movie shows the negative effects that bad business morals can have on society. The two main characters are Bud Fox played by Charlie Sheen and Gordon Gekko played by Michael Douglas. Bud Fox is a young stockbroker who comes from an honest working-class family but on the other hand, Gordon Gekko is a millionaire who Bud admires and wants to be associated with. Greed seems to be a huge theme of this movie. This movie portrays the unethical society we live in. It shows how money oriented society has become and that people will do almost anything to get ahead. Competitiveness has become such a widespread game all over the country, especially in big cities. At the start of Wall Street, Bud Fox is young and insecure about the business world. Bud is a broker seeking new clients and offering second-hand advice regarding the buying and selling of stock. Bud was faced with a choice that would change his life. He was so sure he wanted to be involved with Gordon Gekko that he was willing to do whatever it took to be a part of his immoral scheme. It only took about five minutes for Bud to agree to give insider information about stocks to Gekko in order to become more lucrative and manipulative at the same time. Bud wants to sell him stocks, and hopefully one day be like he is. Bud is obviously desperate to d...

Physiological Impacts of World War Two Essay

When a soldier enlists into the military forces they know they are going in to fight for their country and freedom for everyone. They spend months training and preparing for the war and what to come. They learn to fight, shoot, and kill enemies, but what they do not learn is how to cope with the after math of the war. Soldiers in war every year come home with many post traumatic effects from what they had witnessed. During world war two this was known as shell shock; however what can be concluded is that world war two impacted the soldiers emotionally and physiologically from the time they entered to post war. World War Two was one of the biggest struggles nations everywhere have ever seen. â€Å"It killed more people, costs more money, damaged more property, and affected more people†¦than any other war in history† (The History on the Net Group). People everywhere were in panic when the War started. With all the damage done during the war it can be imagined how the soldiers were traumatized by losing their fellow soldiers. â€Å"The number of people killed, wounded, or missing between September 1939 and September 1945 can never be calculated, but it is estimated that more than 55 million people perished† (The History on the Net Group). Soldiers were devastated by the tragedies that occurred at the time of war. However, before the war started there were a lot of causes that went into why everything ended up in war. World War Two began in September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on Germany following Germany’s invasion of Poland. The war was triggered by Germany’s invasion of Poland but the causes of the war are far beyond this fact. After World War One had occurred Woodrow Wilson, the president of the United States of America wanted to make a treaty on his four point plan to bring peace to Europe. Other countries involved in this treaty did not have the same idea as President Wilson. George Clemenceau wanted revenged. He wanted to make sure Germany would never be able to start a war again. When Germany received this treaty they were very surprised with the terms. The terms included, war guilt clause, which meant Germany accepted all the blame for  World War One. Reparations, Germany had to pay millions in damage from the war. Disarmament, Germany could not have tanks or air force and land was taken away from them and given to other countries. The Germans were not happy with this treaty and thought of it as very harsh. However the Germans took responsibility and continued on in hope to get revenge later. In 1919, to help keep the world safe for democracy the League of Nations was set up. League of Nations would intend that if there were disagreements between countries they would negotiate rather than fight. The failure of the League of Nation can be summarized by points such as, not all countries joining in such as Germany as a punishment and Russia because of the spread of communism. The League of Nations had no power or any army. Countries were hesitant to get involved with an aggressive country and taking direct action against them. These things led to the fall of the League of Nations. People were angry because they did not want to cut off resources with other countries, even if they were aggressive because during the late 1920’s depression hit most of them. â€Å"The depression destroyed the market for imported silk from Japan, which had provided the country with two fifths of its export income’’ (The History on the Net Group). Economic problems played a fundamental part in the cause of World War 2. Germany, one of the poor countries became crippled in power and vulnerable. When Adolf Hitler came into power he immediately began placing blame on other countries and making Germany at the top of resources again. All these aspects lead to the start of World War two in Europe. As the war in Europe continued President Franklin D. Roosevelt told America he did not want to get involved. He thought it was better to stay neutral in this matter and let them handle their own battle. The United States decided to eventually join the war after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, however the issues had started years before Pearl Harbor was attacked. It starts with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, China. The Japanese invade Manchuria on September 18th, 1931. China was in the middle of a depression, so the Japanese had the upper hand. When Russia found this out they were enraged meaning America was as well, being alliances with Russia. Also, â€Å"the Japanese invading China violated the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 which renounced war as national policy† (Ketchum). The United states told Japan  if they don’t get out of China, they would stop trading oil with them. Japan stayed in China so the U.S stopped trading oil. Japan disliked this and held a grudge on America for years. Besides this, The US was already trading with other countries through the Lend-Lease Act, a document allowing the US to lend countries like Britain war materials in exchange for money. Germany was also angry that America was helping their enemies. As a result the Nazi’s decide to sink the U.S supply ships to help keep them from sending resources to other countries. However, President Roosevelt did not want to enter war until the attack of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii occurred. This pushed the United States into the war officially on December 8, 1941. Right after we entered the war Hitler declared war on the United States. Followed by a United States declaration of war against Germany, and then the United States was fully involved in the war. America did not want to go to war but when America was targeted they decided to counter attack, however they did not plan on going to war with Germany but once they did it lead to one of the biggest and bloodiest wars of all time in history. My grandfather, Edward Weil was lucky and un lucky enough to be able to experience World War 2. As a veteran of war he tells me all his stories about what the war was like. â€Å"The war was a very hard time.† He tells me, â€Å"it was rough but it also brought the nation closer together and America’s pride shined.† When I asked my grandfather why he joined the war he has told me about the attack of pearl harbor and how everyone had to stand for the pledge of allegiance out of respect and when he put his hand to his heart a navy officer came up to him and told him, â€Å"You would look very good in a uniform.† It really made my grandfather look at what he wanted to do and how he wanted to protect his nation. At the same time joining the war also impacted him in a negative way. During the war my grandfather was nervous but knew this was what he wanted to do. He saw the Japanese bomb his mother ship and his sailors being killed and put on the edge of the deck to take back and bury. These experiences get scarred into soldiers minds forever. They cannot escape what they saw and those horrific actions done to one another. My grandfather was only 17 years old when he entered war. He wanted freedom and security for the American people. However, as a young teenage boy still the war affected his emotions and to this day it is still  a very sentimental and emotional topic to him. During my interview with my grandfather as I talked about what he wished he could change about the war, he started to tear up and told me about all the people lost to the war and his friends. His ship pulled next to another ship while it was burning and the people were asking for help and they tried to save as many people as they could. My grandfather even lost his left hearing due to the war. He is very proud to show his metals from the war and how he helped our nation. My grandfather is very proud to be a world war to veteran.

Memory Management Requirements

When talking about memory management, it is important to first understand what it is. When operating in a uniprogramming system, the main memory, commonly referred to as random access memory (RAM), is divided into two different parts. The first part is assigned to the operating system (OS), while the second part is assigned to the program currently being executed. When operating in a multiprogramming system, the OS portion must further be subdivided to accommodate multiple processes being executed simultaneously. This subdivision is done dynamically be the OS and that is what is referred to as memory management. Memory management is intended to fulfill a set list of requirements. These requirements are: relocation, protection, sharing, logical organization, and physical organization. This paper will cover each requirement individually. Relocation When a program executes, it is not always the only process accessing the main memory. There are generally many different processes that need access. And so, these processes get swapped around to keep active processes in the main memory in order to maximize the processor usage. When a process gets swapped out for another process, and will need to return, it is not realistic to expect that it will return to its original location in the main memory. This is where relocation plays a vital role. As processes get swapped out, and then back in, relocation moves them around to ensure that there is enough room for everyone to play. Protection Protection refers to maintaining the integrity of a process. A process cannot access a function of another process without specific permission before hand. As swapping and relocation occur, the likelihood of corrupting a process with another one increases. Protection refers to the protocols that keep that from happening. Sharing Sometimes multiple processes may need to access the same portion of main memory. In instances where processes are executing the same program, it is advantageous to allow them to access the same copy of the program, rather than them each having their own. Sharing has a delicate balance that it shares with protection. That is why control over sharing capabilities is very important. Local Organization Both main memory and secondary memory are organized as linear. This creates a conflict, because most programs are organized into modules. Local organization helps the OS and computer effectively deal with programs and data that are organized into modules. This provides a number of benefits. Modules can then be written and compiled independently, protection can be provided in the form of read/execute only modules, and it allows for easy sharing among modules. Physical Organization Physical organization is the core concept in memory management. To understand physical organization, you must first understand the two layers of memory in a system. Main memory refers to memory that is intended for quick processing, and is volatile, meaning that is loses all data when power is not applied. The second of these layers is referred to as secondary memory, which is slower, but is intended for long term storage. Because the programmer of a user program cannot possible know how much memory is available at the time of execution, and that there may be insufficient memory, the responsibility of managing physical organization belongs to the system. Memory Management Requirements When talking about memory management, it is important to first understand what it is. When operating in a uniprogramming system, the main memory, commonly referred to as random access memory (RAM), is divided into two different parts. The first part is assigned to the operating system (OS), while the second part is assigned to the program currently being executed. When operating in a multiprogramming system, the OS portion must further be subdivided to accommodate multiple processes being executed simultaneously. This subdivision is done dynamically be the OS and that is what is referred to as memory management. Memory management is intended to fulfill a set list of requirements. These requirements are: relocation, protection, sharing, logical organization, and physical organization. This paper will cover each requirement individually. Relocation When a program executes, it is not always the only process accessing the main memory. There are generally many different processes that need access. And so, these processes get swapped around to keep active processes in the main memory in order to maximize the processor usage. When a process gets swapped out for another process, and will need to return, it is not realistic to expect that it will return to its original location in the main memory. This is where relocation plays a vital role. As processes get swapped out, and then back in, relocation moves them around to ensure that there is enough room for everyone to play. Protection Protection refers to maintaining the integrity of a process. A process cannot access a function of another process without specific permission before hand. As swapping and relocation occur, the likelihood of corrupting a process with another one increases. Protection refers to the protocols that keep that from happening. Sharing Sometimes multiple processes may need to access the same portion of main memory. In instances where processes are executing the same program, it is advantageous to allow them to access the same copy of the program, rather than them each having their own. Sharing has a delicate balance that it shares with protection. That is why control over sharing capabilities is very important. Local Organization Both main memory and secondary memory are organized as linear. This creates a conflict, because most programs are organized into modules. Local organization helps the OS and computer effectively deal with programs and data that are organized into modules. This provides a number of benefits. Modules can then be written and compiled independently, protection can be provided in the form of read/execute only modules, and it allows for easy sharing among modules. Physical Organization Physical organization is the core concept in memory management. To understand physical organization, you must first understand the two layers of memory in a system. Main memory refers to memory that is intended for quick processing, and is volatile, meaning that is loses all data when power is not applied. The second of these layers is referred to as secondary memory, which is slower, but is intended for long term storage. Because the programmer of a user program cannot possible know how much memory is available at the time of execution, and that there may be insufficient memory, the responsibility of managing physical organization belongs to the system.

La Relacion

La Relacion La Relacion draft Dear Wife, We finally arrived here in the New World. Let me start off with telling you that I made it here in one piece. Even though I'm OK now our trip over was a very treacherous one. We ran into horrible weather, the waves we huge, taller then 25ft I would say at some points. With all the rough conditions we lost two men, Jakob Stevenson III and Roger Klark IV. The rest of us survived but we aren't in the best condition. When we started to explore this new land we found out that we weren't the only people living here. There were a darker skinned colored people living here already. This was astonishing to all of us. There were 100s more of them then us so as you can imagine we were very scared at first. But they weren't a mean people at all.Dear Wife

The Genius of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart essays

The Genius of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart essays Through the hard times and financial insecurity of a musician in the 1700's, Mozart accomplished his dream of becoming a great musician. Coming from a talented family, he spent his life with music. All this started when he was old enough to walk. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was baptized in a Salzburg cathedral the day after his birth; January 27th, 1756. He was born to the Leopold Mozart, a musical author, composer, and violinist; and to his wife Anna Marie Pertl. Only Wolfgang and his sister Maria Anna, or Nannerl, survived infancy. Wolfgang was the seventh born child, out of seven children. Wolfgang was baptized under the name Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus. He never used these names in his later life. He often went by Amadeus or Amade. Although he could not walk until the age of three, Mozart started to display musical talent at the age of four. He could also play any piano melody given to him. It is believed that Mozart's first music was composed shortly after his fourth birthday. At age five he could play the violin with perfect intonation. He injoined this attention that he was getting for being a gifted musician. He found great pleasure in learning and pleasuring his father. It took all of 30 minutes to mast er his first musical composition. This was a scherzo by Georg Christoph Wagenseil, learned three days before his fifth birthday. Leopold began to neglect his court career and devote more time to Wolfgang and Nannerl's musical instruction. He then proceeded to send his two children on tours to play in the courts of Europe. The family set out from Salzburg on September 18, 1762. At Linz, Wolfgang gave his first public concert. Among the audience was Count Herberstein and Count Hieronymous. Both were astonished and hurried to Vienna to spread the reports of Mozart's talent. All of Vienna was anxiously awaiting the arrival of the prodigies from Salzburg. '"We are already being talked f everywhere," Leopold reporte...

The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 Known also as the Simpson-Mazzoli Act for its legislative sponsors, the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986 was passed by Congress as an attempt to control illegal immigration into the United States. The legislation passed the U.S. Senate on a 63-24 vote and the House 238-173 in October 1986. President Reagan signed it into law shortly after on Nov. 6. The federal law had provisions that restricted the hiring of illegal immigrants in the workplace and also allowed illegal immigrants already in the country to stay here legally and avoid deportation. Among them: Requiring employers to stipulate that their employees had legal immigration status.Making it illegal for an employer to knowingly hire an illegal immigrant.Creating a guest worker plan for certain seasonal agricultural workers.Increasing enforcement personnel on the U.S. borders.Legalizing the illegal immigrants who entered the country before Jan. 1, 1982 and had been U.S. residents continuously since then, in exchange for back taxes, fines and admission of entering the country illegally. Rep. Romano Mazzoli, D-Ken., and Sen. Alan Simpson, R-Wyo., sponsored the bill in Congress and steered its passage. â€Å"Future generations of Americans will be thankful for our efforts to humanely regain control of our borders and thereby preserve the value of one of the most sacred possessions of our people: American citizenship,† Reagan said upon signing the bill into law. Why Was the 1986 Reform Act a Failure? The president couldnt have been much more mistaken. People on all sides of the immigration argument agree that the 1986 Reform Act was a failure: it didnt keep illegal workers out of the workplace, it didn’t deal with at least 2 million undocumented immigrants who ignored the law or were ineligible to come forward, and most of all, it didnt stop the flow of illegal immigrants into the country. On the contrary, most conservative analysts, among them members of the Tea Party, say that the 1986 law is an example of how amnesty provisions for illegal immigrants encourage more of them to come. Even Simpson and Mazzoli have said, years later, that the law didnt do what they hoped it would. Within 20 years, the number of illegal immigrants living in the United States had at least doubled. Instead of curbing abuses in the workplace, the law actually enabled them. Researchers found that some employers engaged in discriminatory profiling and stopped hiring people who looked like immigrants – Hispanics, Latinos, Asians – to avoid any potential penalties under the law. Other companies enlisted subcontractors as a way to insulate themselves from hiring illegal immigrant workers. The companies then could blame the middlemen for abuses and violations. One of the failings in the bill was not getting wider participation. The law didnt deal with all the illegal immigrants already in the country and didnt reach out more effectively to those who were eligible. Because the law had the Jan. 1982 cutoff date, tens of thousands of undocumented residents were not covered. Thousands of others who might have participated were unaware of the law. In the end, only about 3 million illegal immigrants participated and became legal residents. The failings of the 1986 law were often cited by critics of comprehensive immigration reform during the 2012 election campaign and the congressional negotiations in 2013. Opponents of the reform plan charge that it contains another amnesty provision by granting illegal immigrants a path to citizenship and is sure to encourage more illegal immigrants to come here, just as its predecessor did a quarter-century ago.

Terminology & Experiences & Beliefs Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Terminology & Experiences & Beliefs - Case Study Example I began to associate the term with high intelligence in a given area and high levels of income. The term also implies come connotations of social privilege. I would describe an accounting professional as a person who has gone through the formal education system of accountancy and acquired the requisite skills of accountancy to such a level that he can and has applied them to solve accounting related problems. Necessarily, such a person, according to my description, should have some experience in the accounting area of specialization, and must reflect a high regard of ethical practices. Yes, I would differentiate myself from the well-paid non-professional people in the field of accounting precisely because my formal training as an accountant has enabled me to acquire resourceful insights that differentiates me from non-professionals. I am knowledgeable about the dynamics of the business world and the attendant principles that govern them. With sufficient experience, I believe that I would be able to distinguish myself from the well-paid non-professional because of the depth of my insight and the formality of my

State Bank of India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

State Bank of India - Essay Example In fact, after five years of deliberations, the chairman reflected bank’s achievements on the attribute of positive attitude regained by leadership thought. This opened up avenues through which the chairman shifted the focus to start aiming at being among the top twenty banks in the world. With such deliberations, the concern is on how the bank has been performing, what contributed to its advancements, the challenges it met along the journey, the opportunities available, its current weaknesses, and the potential it has in order to go to higher horizons. In light with this, the following section will evaluate on the current bank’s situation. This will give an insight and overview of the potential that the bank has in terms of advancing or deteriorating (Samuelson 1980). SBI profile: the primary internal and external influences on State Bank of India One theory that can be put into the context of explaining the primary internal and external influences on state bank is the ory of planed behavior. This theory can be applicable in explaining why, for example, people have a perception the SBI is a good bank. It takes several strategic measures for the internal management of the bank to put incentives that change the view of customers in relation to services offered by the bank. In order for employees to be able to perform well in their duties, they need to have a good attitude towards both the organisation and the customers. In essence, theory of planned behavior argues that, the attitude toward a behavior changes individual behavioral intentions (Ajzen 2007). In this regard, due to good employee incentives offered by the bank, employees are able to have a positive attitude towards the bank, something that results in top performance. In addition, organisation and management theory argues that organisations must understand both internal and external factors in order to succeed in their business. This can be analyzed to be the case in SBI. For example, on his reflection of the journey, in 2011, the chairman admitted that the bank has been the largest commercial bank in India. According to the chairman, this has been a journey full of transformations, which focused on changing its hierarchy, transaction orientation, customer focus, government ownership, and change of technological advancement, which has made it to be a universal bank. After Bhatt took over its leadership, he talked of transforming the leadership of SBI in order to propel it further. By 2010, SBI had doubled its profits and regained market share, something that led to the bank being awarded the ‘achievement award’ for the strongest bank in the Asian pacific region. In this regard, it is apparent that the change of leadership exhibited by Bhatt was very instrumental in taking the bank to new levels (Rust and Zahorik 1993). Therefore, analytically, it can be argued that apart from adopting all necessary technology and other strategies in business, leadership plays an indispensable role in development of any organisation (Yeung, Ging and Ennew 2002). By 2011, SBI was 43rd largest bank in the world taking a capitalization of over $ 36.5 billion in. By that time, SBI had more than 267,000 employees and with 18,000 branches and 25,000 ATMs. In this year, it made profits of $ 2.6 billion. However, the journey of SBI has been a long one since its establishment in 1806. Some years down the line, the bank was granted the right to issue currency; something updated it into the status of a presidency bank. At that time, the bank was partly owned by the government and part by private individuals. One of the parties that have had influence on

Blood doniation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Blood doniation - Essay Example Blood donation is one of the noblest acts any person could do for another. A. Blood Donation: It is believed by the World Health Organization that safe access to blood is a basic human right. This is something that is yet to be achieved in developing countries. There has been a great concern about blood access from paid donors being very risky. This is why today we gather here to advocate for free unpaid blood donation. Blood donation is very crucial and especially the safe donation. Statistics show that out of eighty million blood donors, only a third is form developing countries. C. It is the aim of WHO to triple the number of blood donors who are unpaid. This is because it is both safe and cheap. There are procedures that are undertaken when voluntary blood donations are being taken. Blood testing is compulsory to ensure only safe blood is given to patients. There are many diseases that could be passed through blood donatio0n like HIV/AIDS. There is an unceasing scarcity of blood all through the year in several parts of the country. However, in toting up, heightened scarcity occurs during summer months and the holiday period. The rate at which blood is donated blood donation drops significantly. A number of patients are perishing because of a lack of blood for transfusion. The good news is that there are millions of people who are saved from blood donations each day most of which are women and children from poor and rural countries (Brown et al 29). The process of blood donation is very simple. A volunteer must be over the age of sixteen to donate blood. He or she must also be over a hundred and fifty pounds and must be physically fit. A patient simply lies on their back and blood is removed from the upper hand and pumped into a plastic bag which is sterilized. This blood is then taken to the laboratory for testing of any pathogens. It is then stored in the blood

Job analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Job analysis - Assignment Example hen a certain task is given to a custom agent, it is upon him to see that the task is accomplished precisely, rather than assuming that some other sailor will do it. In addition, a custom employee should not drift through his time while in the job. Each one of them must pay attention to all details no matter how small the matter may be. According to their guiding principles, attention to any detail may signify the difference between failure or success of a given task, and between life and death (Young 15). A custom employee is not expected to play favorites or put into effect the rules without considering honesty and neutrality. Permitting some custom officers to ignore other rules will bring challenges in the field. Integrity at the border and port also requires that a custom worker hold on to his or her responsibility no matter what comes on his or her way. This is the reason why their regulations provide that no custom officer should quit in simple tasks. With this in mind, a custom officer can never give up, even when he sees a likelihood of death, while carrying on his duties. A good custom officer is ethically responsible. He knows what is wrong and what is not, so he tries to do only what is acceptable. He performs all duties in a timely and correct human way possible without any worries of the inconveniences or personal gain. A custom officer does not entertain immature self-seekers who prioritize his or her best efforts solely when there is a personal reward. A custom officer should not be stubborn, resentful, self-important individual who turns down orders. The laid down rules and regulations guide the daily operation of the customs department, and if followed by all custom employees, life in the field can be so easy and enjoyable for everyone (Young 23). In the customs department, a team is much greater than an individual is. Given that, every team has leaders and simple members, every custom employee is part of a team, and he should respect and work

Automation Tools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Automation Tools - Essay Example However your data might change making your recorded macro unusable. Using a Do - Loop Until function will solve your problem as you are now able to instruct the macro how many times a particular set of instructions need to be completed. Using Variables - You are not able to use a variable to store data using the record macro function. You will have to resort to use the VB editor once again. Apart from the fact that you are able to store information in these variables, a fuction called Evaluate in VBA will let you use MS Excel commands like concatenate etc within VBA. You need not use Excel to do calculations. Even referencing conplicated fuctions such as DSUM varies according to your data. Using properties of a Cell selection - Lets say you need the cell address of every cell containing the word "Penguin" and have that on a separate sheet. Record Macro will not be able to give you the solution whatsoever. Using VB Editor, you can use the Cell.Find function to search for the word "Penguin" along with the selection.address function and enter the cell address into a variable. A message box can then be called using the Msgbox fuction to display the value stored in the variable. This example contains three different offings (variable, Selection.Address and Msgbox) which the record macro function is unable to offer. 1.(b) The are many ways of accessing the library. ... Others are by clicking the object library button on the toolbar or by clicking the Object Browser button in the view menu. The information provided by the library is quite large and in depth. It will provide the below information: Various Classes available Objects member available in a particular class The type of the object (Function, Property etc) The argument a function accepts along with the type of arguments Also the value type returned (Range, Long etc) As an example, if you search for "Offset" in the search box, you will find the following information in the display area: Property Offset([RowOffset], [ColumnOffset]) As Range read-only Member of Excel.Range This means that the function "Offset" is member of Class Range and Library Excel. The function accepts arguments in the form of the row number followed by column number and will treat it as a range. It is read only which means it can be used only to retrieve information but to enter any into the cell. 1.(c) VBA offers a number of debugging facilities. These are: Jump over: VBA will overlook a piece of code which has a single quotation mark in front of it. This way you can skip a particular line of code that you find to be causing an error. Run and Wait: VBA will allow you to select a line of coding by clicking the margin in front of it and highlighting it in red. It will run all the commands before the highlighted one and wait for you to check the highlighted one. You can then hover your mouse pointer over the highlighted code and the value of the result will be displayed. This is very useful while using variable. This method can be used for an entire selection of codes. 1.(d) Function mean(rng As Range) As Double Dim freq, total As Integer Dim r As

How Roche Diagnostics Develops Global Managers Essay

How Roche Diagnostics Develops Global Managers - Essay Example To become a global manager a person must have a combination of experience, education, and exposure to foreign locations. Being bilingual or speaking several languages is a great skill to have for a global manager. The responsibility for producing global managers lies in the human resource department of a corporation. The HR department has to recruit global managers and it must also develop in-house talent to become the future leaders of an organization. Developing talent internally has tremendous benefits for a company because it helps improve the employee retention rate of the firm. The participation of the executive management team is necessary to design an effective global management training program. The CEO must be involved in the process because he is a person that can influence the aspirations of a young talented businessperson to become a global leader. My career choice is business administration. Global leaders are needed in business organizations due to the fact that intern ational expansion has become a strategy that is used more than ever before by business organizations. In the United States many companies have started out small. For instance Starbucks started as a single coffeehouse that bought the Starbucks brand along with six stores. Today the firm has over 16,000 outlets worldwide. This massive international growth would not have been possible would the presence of global leaders. A lack of global leadership can be detrimental to a business organization. The managers of businesses must have basic knowledge about global affairs. For instance foreign exchange monetary fluctuation should be monitored by managers making purchasing decisions. If the currency of a country goes up by 30% in a month, this type of information would be important to know to stay away from buying goods from such a place that is facing inflationary forces. A lack of global leadership can also inhibit the ability of a manager to make decisions on how to market a company glob ally through the use of e-commerce. Most companies in today’s marketplace cannot rely solely on the domestic marketplace. The current affairs and policy changes of countries must be understood by global managers. If a country makes a product illegal a firm that does not keep up with changes in international laws could get into legal troubles if it does remove its product from a country that banned its use. The United States government must get more involved in the development of global leaders. There are numerous ways in which the government can contribute towards the cause. For instance the government could develop an incentive program that would pay companies 50% of the travel expenses associated with training and development programs for global management. Another way the government could help is by offering more grants and scholarships for graduate students studying international business. The Federal government will let students borrow up to $138,500 to complete a gradua te degree (Studentaid, 2011). This type of access to financing helps, but a lot of adults are not willing to absorb so much extra debt when they have to pay a mortgage, other debt payments, bills, and living expenses for themselves and their families. At the undergraduate level the government has an excellent scholarship program called Pell Grant. The government could create a similar grant program for business graduate students

Automation Tools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Automation Tools - Essay Example However your data might change making your recorded macro unusable. Using a Do - Loop Until function will solve your problem as you are now able to instruct the macro how many times a particular set of instructions need to be completed. Using Variables - You are not able to use a variable to store data using the record macro function. You will have to resort to use the VB editor once again. Apart from the fact that you are able to store information in these variables, a fuction called Evaluate in VBA will let you use MS Excel commands like concatenate etc within VBA. You need not use Excel to do calculations. Even referencing conplicated fuctions such as DSUM varies according to your data. Using properties of a Cell selection - Lets say you need the cell address of every cell containing the word "Penguin" and have that on a separate sheet. Record Macro will not be able to give you the solution whatsoever. Using VB Editor, you can use the Cell.Find function to search for the word "Penguin" along with the selection.address function and enter the cell address into a variable. A message box can then be called using the Msgbox fuction to display the value stored in the variable. This example contains three different offings (variable, Selection.Address and Msgbox) which the record macro function is unable to offer. 1.(b) The are many ways of accessing the library. ... Others are by clicking the object library button on the toolbar or by clicking the Object Browser button in the view menu. The information provided by the library is quite large and in depth. It will provide the below information: Various Classes available Objects member available in a particular class The type of the object (Function, Property etc) The argument a function accepts along with the type of arguments Also the value type returned (Range, Long etc) As an example, if you search for "Offset" in the search box, you will find the following information in the display area: Property Offset([RowOffset], [ColumnOffset]) As Range read-only Member of Excel.Range This means that the function "Offset" is member of Class Range and Library Excel. The function accepts arguments in the form of the row number followed by column number and will treat it as a range. It is read only which means it can be used only to retrieve information but to enter any into the cell. 1.(c) VBA offers a number of debugging facilities. These are: Jump over: VBA will overlook a piece of code which has a single quotation mark in front of it. This way you can skip a particular line of code that you find to be causing an error. Run and Wait: VBA will allow you to select a line of coding by clicking the margin in front of it and highlighting it in red. It will run all the commands before the highlighted one and wait for you to check the highlighted one. You can then hover your mouse pointer over the highlighted code and the value of the result will be displayed. This is very useful while using variable. This method can be used for an entire selection of codes. 1.(d) Function mean(rng As Range) As Double Dim freq, total As Integer Dim r As

Scientific breakthroughs Essay Example for Free

Scientific breakthroughs Essay Scientific breakthroughs are achieved either by chance or by a thorough scientific research where people discover or come up with new information about the world they are living in. These research projects are designed according to a standard that provides qualitative and quantitative data through experimentation and analysis. Part of the standard in a scientific research/investigation is the questioning, followed by a potential guess or answer, before an â€Å"if, then† statement. This process or standard is referred to as the â€Å"Scientific Method. † One of the most important elements in the process of scientific method is the formation of hypothesis. Hypothesis is defined as a scholarly guess considered to be the potential answer to the question identified at hand. In order to come up with a specific hypothesis, a certain standard or protocol should also be followed. Questions resulting from observations are piled up and reworded to form a guess. The guess or hypothesis must be in a statement form and not as a question, can be experimented over a test, should be based on observations and information, and should foresee the projected results clearly. It is primarily composed of two variables namely, the independent and dependent variables. Identifying variables forms predominantly the entire process of hypothesis formation. As known, variable, from its root word â€Å"vary†, is a component that changes in the process of the investigation. Upon taking one variable at a time in the formation of hypothesis, the one selected is what we call the â€Å"independent† one. The independent variables could be in the form of abiotic and biotic. The former are the inorganic factors of an environment while the latter are results coming from the living elements of the environment. The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the variable that is directly examined by the researcher. Meanwhile, the researcher can use any of the three methods in writing a hypothesis. He or she can choose the manipulation hypothesis when using the independent variable for experimentation, the choice hypothesis when examining the preference of an organism, or the observational hypothesis when observing organisms where conditions cannot be changed (UTAS 2008 ¬). References University of Tasmania. (2008). Hypothesis Formation. Retrieved March 17, 2009, from http://www. utas. edu. au/sciencelinks/exdesign/HF2. HTM

Improving Performance of MANET under DSR Protocol

Improving Performance of MANET under DSR Protocol Improving Performance of MANET under DSR Protocol using Swarm Optimization to avoid redundancy CHAPTER 5 Implementation and Testing The implementation phase of any project development is the most important phase as it yields the final solution, which solves the problem at hand. The implementation phase involves actual materialization of the ideas, which are expressed in the analysis document and developed in design phase. Implementation of any software is always preceded by important decisions regarding selection of the platform, the language used, etc. These decisions are often influenced by several factors such as the real environment in which the system work, the speed that is required, the security concerns, other implementation specific details etc. Implementation should be perfect matching with the design document in order to achieve the necessary final product. For implementation of our system we use Network Simulator (NS) tool for simulation of the network and programming languages like Tool Command Language (TCL) and AWK are used for coding. 5.1 General Implementation Implementation and simulation under NS-2 consists of 3 steps: Simulation Design The first step in simulating a network is to design the simulation. In this step, the users should determine the simulation purposes, network configuration and assumptions, the performance measures, and the type of expected results Configuring and Running Simulation This step implements the design described in the first step. It consists of two phases: Network configuration phase: In this phase network components (e.g., node, mobile sink, base station TCP and UDP) are created and configured according to the simulation design. Also, the events such as data transfer are scheduled to start at a certain time. Simulation Phase: This phase starts the simulation which was configured in the Network Configuration Phase. It maintains the simulation clock and executes events chronologically. An algorithm is a procedure or formula for solving a problem. A computer program can be viewed as an elaborate algorithm. In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm usually means a small procedure that solves a recurrent problem. The algorithms used in the project to solve the problem. Evaluation of Fitness Function The fitness function F(x) is defined as follows: F(x) = PDR/k k*[NO + AD + PD] Where, NO = Normalized Overhead AD = Average End to End Delay PD = Number of Packet drop PDR = Packet Delivery Ratio k = Proportionality constant used for the optimization of fitness function. Value of k lies between 0 1 i.e. O 5.1.1 Proposed Algorithm 1) Genetic Algorithm Step 1. Simulate the network using the DSR protocol. Step 2. After the simulation, analyze the Trace file. This gives the number of different paths for the same source and destination pair. Step 3. Choose two paths PI P2 for the same source and destination pair with the equal number of nodes n. Step 4. Calculate the Routing Load (RL) MAC Load (ML),Packet Delivery Ratio ( PDR), End-to-End Delay (D), and number of packets dropped, for the selected path. Step 5. Apply fitness function on the path chosen in step 3. Step 6. Apply crossover on the path chosen in step 3 at random site. Step 7. Apply mutation after crossover on the path chosen in step 3 on the randomly chosen site. Step 8. Step 6 gives two new paths P1 P2 with one new node as compared to the old path. Let the new node in path PI be nl and in P2 be n2. Step 9. If n 1 belongs to network topology then apply the fitness function on the respective path otherwise discard the path. Step 10. Do the same for node n2 as in Step 9. Step 11. Consider the path with the highest fitness function value and:- { Respective path will be the optimal path for the given source and destination pair. The node replaced from the previous path is the misbehaving node. } 2) Ant Colony Optimization Step 1: Calculate the probability of selection of newly generated path that are obtain by applying genetic algorithm for the given source-destination pair. The path will be selected with the higher probability. P à °Ã‚ Ã…“‚ij= pheromone on the link. à °Ã‚ Ã…“‚ij visibility factor of the link. B k k is a constant used for optimization and lies between 0 and 1 à °Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ¼, B are the constant aco optimization constant Step 2: The backward ant accumulates the pheromone and also the evaporation of pheromone take place, now we calculate the updated pheromone after the evaporation, à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ij= (i,j) accumulated pheromone on the link. FF Fitness Function k proposnality à °Ã‚ Ã…“ new=Ï *à °Ã‚ Ã…“ old+à °Ã‚ Ã…“  Step 3: The path with the higher path preference probability will be considered as the best path and the data transmission can be started along that path. Network Simulator2 (NS2) Network Simulator (Version 2), extensively recognized as NS2, is basically an event driven simulation tool that has established helpful in learning the dynamic environment of communication networks. Simulation of agitated as well as wireless network purposes and protocols for example, routing algorithms, TCP, and UDP can be completed using NS-2. In all-purpose, and then the NS-2 make available for the users by means of a way of identifying such network protocols and simulating their corresponding activities. NS-2 is written in C++, with an OTcl1 interpreter as a command and configuration interface. The C++ part, which is fast to run but slower to change, is used for detailed protocol implementation. The OTcl part, on the other hand, which runs much slower but can be changed very fast quickly, is used for simulation configuration. One of the advantages of this split language program approach is that it allows for fast generation of large scenarios. To simply use the simulator, it is sufficient to know OTcl. On the other hand, one disadvantage is that modifying and extending the simulator requires programming and debugging in both languages. NS-2 can simulate the following: Topology: Wired Wireless Transport Protocols: TCP, UDP Routing: Static and dynamic routing Application: FTP, HTTP, Telnet, Traffic generators 5.2.1 Basic Architecture of NS2 The basic architecture of NS2 is shown in the figure 5.1 below. NS2 provides users with executable command ns which take one input quarrel, the name of a Tcl simulation scripting file. Users are providing for the name of a Tcl simulation script as an input argument of anNS2 executable command that is ns. In the majority suitcases, a simulation trace file is shaped, and is second-hand to plot graph and/or to construct animation. NS-2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command Language (OTcl). While the C++ characterizes the internal apparatus of the simulation objects, the OTcl sets up simulation by pull together and configuring the substance as well as preparation discrete events. The C++ and the OTcl are linked collectively by means of TclCL. Mapped to a C++ object; variables in the OTcl sphere of influence are occasionally referred to as switches. Theoretically, a handle for example, n as a Node handle is just a string in the Otcl sphere of influence, and does not surround any functionality. Instead, the functionality for example, receiving a packet is distinct in the mapped C++ object examples are, of class Connector. In the OTcl province, a handle take steps as a frontend which interrelated with consumers and other Otcl objects. After simulation, NS-2 out puts moreover text-based or animation-based simulation consequences. Figure 5.1: Basic Architecture of NS2 To interpret these results graphically and interactively, tools such as NAM (Network Animator) and Xgraph are used. To investigate an exacting behavior of the network, clients can extract a relevant subset of text-based data and make over it to a more conceivable presentation Tcl and OTcl Programming Tcl (Tool Command Language) is used by millions of people in the world. It is a language with a very simple syntax and it allows a very easy integration with other languages. The characteristics of these languages are as follows: It allows a fast development It provide a graphic interface It is compatible with many platforms It is flexible for integration It is easy to use It is free Some of the basics of Tcl and Otcl programming are listed below. Assigning a value to a variable is done through the â€Å"set† command; for example: â€Å"set b 0†assigns the value 0 to b. When we want to use the value assigned to a variable, we should use a $ sign before the variable. For example, if we want to assign the value of the variable b, we should write â€Å"set x $a†. A mathematical operation is done using the expression command. For example, if we wish to assign the sum of values of variables a and b, we should write â€Å"set x [expr $a+$b]†. The sign # starts a commented line that is not part of the program, so the Tcl interpreter will not execute this line. Performance Analysis Module This module performs processing of output result set to compute the various performance metrics required to analyze the performance of flow slice based routing. This module includes following AWK scripts to compute various performance metrics. Plotting graphs for the performance metric to analyze the performance. The Fig 4.11 gives Flow chart for working of performance analysis module, Understanding the trace file format is essential for modeling performance metric computation. Manually interpretation of NS2 trace files for wireless simulation as follows ACTION:[s|r|D]: s sent, r received, D dropped WHEN:the time when the action happened WHERE:the node where the action happened LAYER:AGT application, RTR routing, LL link layer (ARP is done here), IFQ outgoing packet queue (between link and mac layer), MAC Mac, PHY physical SEQNO:the sequence number of the packet TYPE:The packet type cbr CBR data stream packet ftp – FTP data stream packet DSR DSR routing packet (control packet generated by routing) RTS RTS packet generated by MAC 802.11 ARP link layer ARP packet SIZE:the size of packet at current layer, when packet goes down, size increases, goes up size decreases [a b c d]:a The packet duration in Mac layer header b The mac address of destination c The mac address of source d The mac type of the packet body Figure 5.2: Flow chart for working of performance analysis module Initialization and Termination of NS2 An ns simulation starts with the command set ns [new Simulator] The first line in the tcl script. This declares a new variable NS using the set command. The code [new Simulator] is the instantiation of the class Simulator using the reserved word new.In order to have output files with data in the simulation (trace files) or files for visualization (nam files); we need to create the files using the â€Å"open† command as follows: #Open the Trace file set tracefile1 [open out.tr w] $ns trace-all $namfile #Open the NAM trace file Set namfile [open out.nam w] $ns namtrace-all $namfile The above procedures create a data trace file called â€Å"out.tr† and a nam visualization trace file called â€Å"out.nam†. The second lines open the file â€Å"out.tr† to be used for writing, declared with the letter â€Å"w†. The third line uses a simulator method called trace-all that have name of file as parameter where the traces will go. The termination of the program is done using a â€Å"finish† procedure. #Define a finish procedure proc finish {} { global ns tracefile1 namfile $ns flush–trace close $tracefile1 close $namfile execnamout.nam exit 0 } Plotting with X graph Xgraph is a plotting utility that is provided by ns. It allows to create postscript, Tgif files, and others, by clicking on the button â€Å"Hdcpy†. It can be invoked within the tcl command which results in an immediate display after the end of the simulation. The xgraph command expects one or more ASCII files as input containing each x-y data point pair perl line. Some of the options in xgraph are: Title: use –t â€Å"title†. Size: geometry xsize z ysize. Title for axis: -x â€Å"xtitle† (for the title of the x axis) and –y â€Å"ytitle† (for the title of the y axis) Color of text and grid: with the flag –v Command for the above options would be shown below Xgraph ov.xg in terms of load units for the† overhead†,Xgraph dl.xg in terms of microsec â€Å"delay†,Xgraph pdr.xg percentage of delivered data for† packet deliver ratio†. 5.3 Network Animator (NAM) When a simulation is finished, NS produces one or more text-based output files that contain detailed simulation data, if specified to do so in the input script. The data can be used for simulation analysis or as an input to a graphical simulation display tool called NAM. NAM has a nice graphical user interface. It can graphically present information such as throughput and number of packet drops at each link NAM is started with the command nam where is the name of a NAM trace file that was generated by NS, or it can execute it directly out of the TCL simulation script for the simulation to visualize. Figure 5.3: A Simple NAM Window 5.4 Test Setup The aim of testing stage is to discover defects/errors by testing individual program components. These components may be functions and the objects or modules. During system testing then these components are integrated to form the complete system. At this stage, of testing should focus on establishing that the system meets its functional requirements and does not behave in unexpected ways. Test data are inputs which have been devised to test the system whereas test cases are inputs to test the system and the outputs are predicted from these inputs if the system operates according to its specification the result of this is used to examine the behavior in a cohesive system. The test cases are selected to ensure that the system behavior can be examined in all possible combinations of conditions. Detecting all the different failure modes for software is generally infeasible. Software testing is used in association with verification and validation: Verification: Have built the software right (i.e., does it match the specification)? Validation: Have built the right software (i.e., is this what the customer wants)? Testing Process Testing is an integral part of software development. Testing process, in a way certifies, whether the product, that is developed, complies with the standards, that it was designed for Testing process involves building of test cases, against which, the product has to be tested. In some cases, test cases are done based on the system requirements specified for the product/software, which is to be developed. Testing Objectives These following objectives imply a dramatic change in view port the testing cannot show absence of defects, it can only show that software errors are present. Testing forms process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error. A good test case design is one that has a probability of finding an error yet undiscovered. A successful test will discovers all the bugs and user can undertake steps to rectify them. 5.4.1 Test Environment The software was tested on the following platform. Operating System – Ubuntu 11.10 Ns-allinone-2.35 DSR to find multiple paths using Genetic Algorithm 5.4.2 System testing Here the entire software system is tested and the reference document for this process is the requirements document the main goal is to see if the system meets its requirements. Each module and component of project was thoroughly tested to remove bugs through a system testing strategy. Test cases were generated for all possible input sequences and the output was verified for its correctness. Test cases for system testing are mentioned below. Software testing is the process used to help identify the correctness and completeness of developed system. Testing is a process of technical investigation that is intended to reveal if the system works in a way it is intended to operate. Testing furnishes a comparison that compares the state and behavior of the product against a specification. Software testing also provides an objective and the independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. 5.4.3 Testing Artifacts Software testing development shown with many artifacts and they are: Test Plan: A test specification is normally known as test plan and the investigators are well conscious about what test plans determination is implemented and this information is made obtainable to administration and the developers. The manager or the foremost supervisory plan is to put together them more careful when increasing the code or construction additional revolutionizes. Traceability matrix: A traceability matrix is counters that draw a parallel necessity or propose for the documents to test documents and it is used to substantiate that the results are acceptable. Test case: The test case in general consists of a exclusive identifier and obligation references from a design specification then the preconditions along with the events a series of steps known as actions to follow the input output and expected result including the actual result. All these phases can be accumulated in a word central processing unit document, with the spreadsheet, and also the database, or other common repository. Test suite: The good number of frequent phrase for a collected works of test cases is a test suite. The test suite frequently also contains more comprehensive instructions or goals for each collected works of test cases. Test data: Numerous positions of standards or data are used to test the identical functionality of an exacting characteristic. It is also helpful to manufacture this data to the client and with the creation of or a project. Test harness: The software apparatus, illustration of information input and output, and arrangements are all referred to cooperatively as a test harness. Testing Methods The testing methods describe the approach that is used to test the working of the project. These approaches tests whether the functionality of the project address with the existing requirements. Overall functionality of the project is also tested. Types of test carried out are: Unit testing Integration testing Function testing Unit testing A unit test is a piece of code that invokes a unit of work and checks one specific end result of that unit of work. If the assumptions on the end result turn out to be wrong, the unit test has failed. In unit testing and black-box testing then the white-box testing are done to check the correctness of the existing functionality. Normal Manual testing has been done to check the correctness of the functionality of the project. Then the further results of each testing are depicted in the table the test case approach has been chosen out of the testing artifacts. Integration Testing Integration testing is any type of software testing that seeks to verify the interfaces between the components against a software design. Integration test may be performed all at once the top-down and bottom-up then significant piece first, some time integrating functional subsystems first and then integrating the subsystems in separate phases using any of the basic strategies. Usually larger the project, the more important the integration strategy will be to the project. Functional testing Functional testing is the generation of test cases from specifications is a valuable and flexible approach to software testing application from very early system specification right through module specification Functional testing deriving test cases from program specifications. Functional said to set of information used in test cases design not to what is tested also known as Specification based testing (from specifications) black-box testing (no view of the code)and the Functional and the specification description of intended program behavior either formal or informal.

The Tempest and Antigone Essay -- Comparative, Shakespeare, Sophocles

In William Shakespeare’s The Tempest and in Sophocles’ Antigone, both authors explore and illustrate the differences between â€Å"human law† and â€Å"higher law†. The two authors have different opinions about those laws. In The Tempest, Prospero uses his magic to manipulate various characters, and he often uses his magic to follow the plot of the story by his own way. Prospero uses his magic for total control over the people on the island where he lives. In Antigone, Creon, the King of Thebes, uses his title to manipulate others that kills Haemon and Antigone. Though the ending is more tragic in Creon’s control than in Prospero’s, by the end of Creon’s manipulation, the Greek Gods destroys Thebes. Regardless of the differences between the plays, both have different views of â€Å"human law† and â€Å"higher law†. Through the character and the setting development of the story in both plays, it is obvious that Shakespeare favors â€Å"human law† and Sophocles favors â€Å"higher law†. In Shakespeare’s The Tempest, the focus throughout the story is on the â€Å"human law† as Prospero is seen as a manipulator. Near the beginning of the play, Prospero enslaves Caliban, and he obeys Prospero all the time when Prospero orders him to do so. After Prospero gives instructions what to do, Caliban says in an aside that, â€Å"[He] must obey. [Prospero’s] art is of such power/ It would control [his] dam’s god, Setebos, / And make a vassal of [Setebos]† (Shakespeare I.ii.448-450). When Prospero threatens Caliban that he, â€Å"would control [Caliban’s] dam’s god, Setebos† (Shakespeare I.ii.449), making Prospero more powerful than the gods. Prospero’s actions prove that he is the top of the Great Chain of Being. Thus, Shakespeare use of indirect characterization demonstrates to the au... ... In Shakespeare’s The Tempest and in Sophocles Antigone, the text compares itself whether if the belief is toward â€Å"human law† or â€Å"higher law†. Prospero, in The Tempest, is a person who did control others and proves the point that no gods rule. However, Creon, in Antigone, also did control others yet, in that time, the Gods did rule and they did make the lives in Thebes destructive when one breaks their laws. Comparing the two plays, the authors did write in two different periods with different beliefs. The ancient belief is the setting where the â€Å"higher law† is in effect when Antigone is in place. Moreover, in colonialism, there is a different belief, which the â€Å"human law† is in order when The Tempest is in place. Whereabouts, the authors seem to favor different laws depending either of how the authors make their stories or in what kind of setting is taken place.

The Three Marvins :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

The Three Marvins Marvin Lowery: I think the main things you have to look at in this case are; is Marvin a danger to himself, is he a danger to others in the workplace, what can you as a supervisor do to help the situation? It was stated in the brief that he has caused and accident due to carelessness. I think this proves that he is both a danger to himself and others. There is also the added concern of suicide. I think the best approach would be to talk to human resources about the types of counseling is available. You should also look into community groups that provide help for this specific type of situation. There are also religious organizations that help with bereavement, if applicable. When you have appropriate counselors and community services line up, I would then sit down with Mr. Lowery and discuss the situation. I would try to key in on the fact that you are concerned for Marvin. You know he is a good employee and you do not want to lose him. I would then present him with some options on coun seling. Make him aware of the fact that if he needs more time, that leave without pay is available. I would then reiterate your concern for his well being and that of his coworkers. Let him know that for any help he needs, that you are there for him. Your first concern is for his welfare. Marvin Fletcher I would set up a time to talk with Marvin. I would start off by stating the fact that he is a valued employee. You understand the difficulty he may be having with his children, because both he and his spouse works. I would then let him know that you cannot continuously adjust his schedule to accommodate this. If this is going to be as frequent as it has been then Mr. Fletcher will need to use his sick time and/or vacation time to make up for it. You might ask him whether it is possible for his wife to pick up the kids more often. Reiterate that you understand his situation but you have the rest of the department to think about as well. Note: Before you talk with Marvin you should look into whether flex time is feasible in your department.

Theory of Communication

Theories of communication A theory is a set of ideas that can be used to understand, explain and make predictions about something. Theories of communication provide ways of analysing communication between people and give care practitioners an insight into what works and why. Michael Argyle (1925–2002) was a social psychologist who researched and developed theories about human communication and interpersonal interaction. He focused on both verbal and non-verbal communication, carrying out experimental research to test and develop his theoretical ideas (see Argyle, 1967, 1969 and 1975).Argyle’s ‘communication cycle’ theory sets out to understand, explain and predict how communication occurs between people in one-to-one situations. In The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour (1967), Argyle proposed that communication is a skill that needs to be learnt and practised like any other skill. Argyle’s (1967) claim was that human communication is essentially a two-way process that involves people sending, receiving and responding to each other’s verbal and non-verbal messages.The receiver of the message keeps the communication going by responding to or by giving feedback to the original message. This process then repeats and builds into a communication cycle. Care practitioners need to have an understanding of group processes and patterns of group behaviour in order to interact and communicate well in the various group situations that they experience. Understanding how groups form and then develop is an important part of this. Bruce Tuck man (1965) outlined a model of group development based around a number of stages, or a sequence, of group activity.Tuck man’s (1965) theory suggests that groups must go through these stages to be effective and that the pattern of communication in each of the four stages is different 1. Forming involves group members coming together and asking basic questions about the purpose and aims of t he group, each member’s role within it and commitment to it. In this first stage of group development, members tend to feel quite anxious, often prioritise their own interests and may feel ‘disorientated’ in their interactions with others. A leader usually emerges in this early stage. . Storming, the second stage, is a period of conflict within the group. Members may argue over the purpose of the group, may contest its aims and sometimes resist the authority and role of the leader. In this stage, power and control are the main issues. Eventually, the purpose of the group and the roles within it become clearer as power and control battles are won and lost. Without tolerance and patience at this stage, the team will fail. Co-operation between members should begin to develop towards the end of this phase. . Norming is the stage when the group’s identity develops. A strong set of shared values, norms of behaviour and a group ‘culture’ emerge. The group arrives at one goal and agrees a shared plan to achieve it. The group becomes more cohesive and group members tend to work together to resolve conflicts. 4. Performing is the stage when the group finally matures and gets down to working effectively. Members tend to focus more on the overall goal rather than on relationships between themselves.Relationships have, by this stage, become more comfortable and are based on trust and mutual support. Reflect A group may or may not reach the performing stage: effective, high performing teams do but other less effective groups may get stuck at one of the earlier stages, particularly if they are unable to resolve the challenges or crises associated with that stage of group development. Effective communication within a group situation is a key influence on whether a group reaches the performing stag Theory of Communication Case Study Theory of Communication Introduction to Communication Good communication and interpersonal skills are vital for success in business. The ability to communicate clearly and persuasively is often seen as the key characteristic of the effective manager or administrator. High level communication skills are also essential in specialised functions, such as marketing, human resource management, public relations and secretarial. Communication is the means by which individual employees convey their wants, ideas and feelings to others,( not only managers or specialists). Process of Communication ContextMedium/Channel Message Feedback Noise Communication can be defined as the process by which, ideas, information, opinions, attitude, and feeling are conveyed from one person to another. The communicator or sender is the person who initiates the conversation by sending a message. The receiver is the person who receives the messages and completes the communication by responding to it. Mo st communication is two way and has to have both a sender and receiver, either face to face or by other means such as telephone, letters, e-mails etc. Body language also plays a big part in communication. Sender EncodingReceiver Decoding Communication codes * Written language * Spoken language * Dress * Body language * Pictures, photographs and graphic illustrations. * Sign language, Braille. * Numbers * Computer language Communication Medium The medium is the means used to transmit the message. Media can be categorised into five headings; written, oral, visual, electronic and mass. Written media can provide a written record, can relay complex information, can be carefully thought out and mistakes can be edited. It takes time to produce and is more impersonal than speech. * Letter * Report * Memo * Press Release * Company magazine Advertising leaflet Oral media is more direct and personal, feedback is immediate. Oral media can be supported by body language. But there may be no recor d of what is said and if you say something you don’t mean you cannot take it back. * Conversation face to face or telephone * Interview * Meeting * Presentation * Oral briefing Visual media can have an immediate impact, it can support verbal presentations. * Nonverbal * Diagrams * Charts * Photographs * Models Electronic media provides fast communication over long distance, can carry both verbal and visual information. * Video * Telephone * E-mail * InternetMass media is an important source of information; it can reach a large number of people and can be used for advertising. * Television * Radio * Press * Film Channels of Communication The channel is the air that carries sound waves between speaker and listener such as: * Television channels * Radio * Postal system * Computer networks * Courier services * Telephone Barriers to Communication Effective communication is difficult and mistakes are often made. We see this in everyday life, we complain when someone doesn’t respond to our messages in the way we expect, they do not understand what we really meant to say.In business, difficulties with communication can cause disruption. Good business opportunities can be lost or disastrous management decisions made. A serious breakdown in communication can put the very future of a company at risk. Communication errors can never be completely eliminated. Nevertheless, we are likely to be more successful communicators if we are aware of the factors that cause communication to fail. Some obstacles stand in the way of communication and some of these can be avoided or overcome. Physical Barriers Among these barriers are poor hearing or eyesight, illness, tiredness, or stress.Other barriers can be, distractions such as an office that is too warm or too cold, uncomfortable seating, poor telephone connection or the noise of traffic heard from outside. If a person has a medical problem this may be sorted by a visit to a doctor. If the office is too hot or too col d the thermostat may be altered and maybe closing the window would help to block out the noise. Language Barriers To convey a message correctly it should be written clearly in a language that the receiver will understand. Mistakes in spelling can harm communication.Sometimes local jargon can disrupt good communication; it may be acceptable in a specialised trade or profession. Slang or local accents may be difficult for outsiders to understand. Nonverbal Barriers Facial expression, posture and eye movement all reveal our feelings and attitudes to the receiver. When there is conflict between a verbal and non verbal signal, it is the nonverbal signal that tends to be believed. A person may say that they are outgoing and confident but this might be contradicted by nervous body language. Poor Listening Good listening is often the most important part of communication.Listening give us a better understanding of the other persons point of view, maintains friendships and helps business coll aboration. When not listening properly, we often miss an important point in a conversation. Problems with Perception Perception is how we make sense of ourselves and the world around us. We perceive the world through the senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. We also have some physiological based perceptions such as sensation of pain, heat, cold etc. We have mental perceptions such as thoughts, daydreams and fantasies.The brain registers these different stimuli and organises them into shapes and patterns that we can understand. Mistakes can arise if we think other people perceive things the same way that we do ourselves. Often they don’t and this is a common cause of communication failure. Attitudinal Barriers Stereotyping, prejudice and unwanted attribution are among the attitudinal barriers that can do the most damage to our ability to our ability to relate effectively to others. * Stereotyping: We stereotype other people when we assume they will behave in a cert ain way just because of their appearance, role or a particular social group.We may be surprised to find that conservatively dressed people have radical views or that the big person wearing a studded jacket and driving a Harley Davidson turns out to be as gentle as a lamb. Judging by appearance gives an incomplete and often distorted picture of what a person is really like. * Prejudice: Prejudice is an attitude of hostility based on faulty generalisations, such as stereotypes. It may be directed at individuals or groups. Prejudice can be damaging to communications if a person believes that another person is inferior, subversive, threatening, not fully part of the community and so on.If we consider another person less than ourselves, we are unlikely to value what they have to say. Prejudice is often a part of ignorance but maybe better education will improve this. * Attribution:Even when we avoid stereotyping, we still make the mistake of judging people on flimsy evidence. We should n ot listen to what other people say, this can sometimes be misleading. Having an accurate picture of people is vital for effective communication, but it is something that can only be built up slowly through time, insight and regular contact. The Principles of Effective Communication As a Communicator 1.Think carefully about your objectives before communicating. What do you want to achieve? Do you want to inform, persuade, advise or consult the receiver? What kind of response do you hope to get? When you have answered questions like these then you can think about the content of the message and how you define it. 2. Put yourself in the communicator’s shoes. The receiver’s perception may not be the same as yours. They may think differently or have different opinions. You may need to communicate with tact and sensitivity. 3. Choose the right medium or combination of media. Difficulties can arise if the wrong medium is used.If you try to describe a complicated process by spe ech alone the audience may not understand it. A combination of words and graphics may work better. 4. Organise your ideas and express them carefully. Take time to structure your ideas in a logical sequence. When choosing your words, take into consideration the receivers understanding and linguistic ability. Try to use words that the receiver will understand. Use language suitable to the communication taking place, informal language that may be used on the shop floor may not be suitable or appropriate for a business meeting. 5.Consider the context, breakdowns in communication often occur because the receiver is given information at the wrong time or place. Even important messages can be forgotten if the receiver is busy or preoccupied with something else. 6. Check for feedback, make sure your message has been received and understood. When speaking face to face look for signs of puzzlement in your listeners, be prepared to explain if necessary. Although the main responsibility for com municating a message rests with the sender, the receiver also has to listen and make sure they understand and relay the message to the right person. As a Receiver 1.Give the message your full attention. Many messages are misunderstood because the receiver is not concentrating, they are daydreaming, or there are too many distractions. 2. Interpret the message correctly. This requires effort and proper listening, if you are unsure of what is said; ask for it to be repeated. Check the meaning of unfamiliar words or references. In spoken communication listen actively and with empathy. Be alert for nuances that may subtly alter the meaning of the message. 3. Keep an open mind, you should not allow dislike of the communicator, or disagreement with their beliefs to influence your judgement.Make an objective assessment of the message no matter what your relationship with the sender. 4. Record information you are likely to forget. You should write down any information you are likely to forge t such as, telephone numbers, names, dates etc. The information should be recorded properly in a secure place, not on a scrap of paper that can get lost among other papers on a busy desk. 5. Respond appropriately to the communicator by providing feedback, following up enquiries or whatever action is necessary.